When Philosophy Goes Wrong — The Theory of Moral Sentiments

Smith pauses before the licentious systems to acknowledge what the respectable theories teach. All suppose a real distinction between vice and virtue and generally encourage the praise-worthy disposition. Each system tilts the balance: propriety exalts fortitude and self-command while slighting gentle humanity; benevolence fosters mild virtues yet denies full virtue to prudent self-care; prudence elevates caution while stripping grandeur from the amiable and the awful alike. Yet society would gain if men followed any one of them; even Epicurus shows how virtue secures outward safety as well as inward peace, which is why Cicero, Seneca, and opposing schools quoted him with approval.

Against these stand Rochefoucauld and Mandeville, who would abolish the distinction altogether. Mandeville treats every action prompted by regard to praise as vanity and public spirit as flattery bred upon pride. Smith distinguishes three desires: to become honourable, to acquire esteem by deserving it, and frivolous hunger for applause at any price. Only the last is vanity. Love of true glory resembles love of virtue in aiming at what ought to be esteemed; the man of magnanimity values the opinion that ought to be entertained of him even when mankind err, and regards false censure as directed at a mistaken character, like indignation vented at a friend in masquerade.

Mandeville's greater fallacy is to treat every passion that admits of excess as wholly vicious, then conclude private vices are public benefits because luxury supports refinement. Ascetic doctrines demanding extirpation of affection made his reductio plausible; temperance and chastity require not insensibility but restraint that avoids harm to self and offence to society. His ambiguity exploits names that mark offensive degree rather than moderated passion. Moral philosophy cannot deceive grossly: accounts of domestic affection must preserve some truth, as when a traveller describes our own parish. Smith turns to the principle of approbation, classifying theories from self-love, reason, or sentiment, and noting that the speculative answer alters practice less than disputes over virtue's nature. Licentious systems gained plausibility only because they bordered on truths about vanity and mixed motive that sound morality must acknowledge without surrendering the distinction between vice and virtue.